February 28 - Dante

February 28 – Dante

Dante Alighieri was born to a prominent family from Florence and at the age of twelve was contracted in marriage to one woman, but had fallen head over heels in love at the age of nine with Beatrice, whom he featured in both The Divine Comedy and another poem. Though they ended up being married to others, his love for her became the force that began the idea of ‘courtly love,’ pure and passionate. She was murdered at the age of 24 and Dante immersed himself in Latin literature, then studying philosophy with the Domincans.

He became embroiled in the politics of the region and ended up being exiled to Rome. He spent time in other parts of Italy, but when the demands for reparations and apologies came that would allow him to return to Florence were too great, he refused and knew he might never see his home again.

His Divine Comedy was a work in three parts: Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. Hell describes the nine circles of the pit of hell and he is guided through this by Virgil, the Roman poet. He meets interesting people there – none the least of whom was Pope Boniface VIII. Purgatory describes their journey up a mountain made of nine tiers where souls are working off their sins. On the fourth to last tier, Beatrice takes over from Virgil to act as his guide. Virgil was a pagan. Though he represented the best of humanity, he was not allowed into Paradise. She leads him through the nine circles of heaven where he encounters saints of God.

Dante’s images of heaven overwhelmed even his capacity for description and the text portrays many of the beliefs regarding how people will live out eternity from the Middle Ages.

While this was an amazing piece of religious literature, one of the other great things that came from Dante’s writing was the establishment of the Italian language for publication. Up until this point, Latin was the language used for publication. Dante chose a dialect from Tuscany and actually built a beautiful language for his work called ‘Italian.’ All of a sudden, people were able to read published works in a language that was familiar to them. While there were hundreds of dialects in Italy, with his use of this, a national language was established, one that was beautiful and accessible to everyone.

February 27 - Soar to the Heavens

February 27 – Soar to the Heavens

We take so many things for granted and sometimes don’t even consider their origin. One of these for me is that beautiful architecture of churches/cathedrals/basilicas across Europe. They had a greater purpose than just being a location for a worship service.

Since the great number of people were illiterate, there had to be a way to express Biblical history, the lives of saints and martyrs, promise of heaven, punishment of hell. We probably wouldn’t understand most of the intimate details of the architecture were we to stand in these great buildings, but to the people that were there, the stories were passed down from parents and grandparents and the details of those buildings gave them all they needed to understand about Christianity.

These churches were built as tools to teach people. The transformation of the communion elements was a focal point for the building and each architect did his best to design a building that was worthy of being a home for the Body of Christ. This wasn’t just about housing a worship service, but this was where that great miracle of transubstantiation took place. When a town decided to build a church, it was building a precious jewel – the home of their Lord.

The Romanesque style of architecture developed during the Middle Ages. As more people attended the services, more priests and monks were called to the buildings and they needed to be larger than ever before. Stone roofs replaced wooden roofs. The semicircular arches that supported these roofs required thick walls with pillars of stone to support the structure. There were very few windows and a belfry was also added to the structure of the church.

The Gothic style began to soon replace Romanesque. Critics thought it was barbaric – hence the term Gothic. Roofs were built using the same principle of the arch, but these were pointed rather than semicircular and the ceilings used ‘ribbed’ vaults which rested on columns in the corners rather than the walls. Repetitions of these patterns allowed long and high roofs to be built. These churches had lines that were incredibly vertical, seeming to soar to heaven. Towers and spires were added. Because the heavy walls weren’t required, space for gorgeous stained glass was avaiable, bringing lighting effects that showed the biblical stories.

February 26 - Continued papal deterioration

February 26 – Continued papal deterioration

In 1294, an elderly priest came to Rome as Pope. Rather than live a life of excess and royalty, he believed that he served the people. Dressed in brown robes, he entered the city on a donkey, barefoot, as common as could be. He tried to not be pope, but was finally persuaded by the cardinals to take on the responsibility.

He issued several decrees, one of which was that the cardinals were to be shut away into conclave to elect a new pope and another which was the right of a pope to abdicate. Five months after becoming pope, he did just that and left Rome to continue living a quiet, righteous life.

He wasn’t allowed to live that life. The next pope – Boniface VIII sent for him. Celestine attempted to escape, was captured and imprisoned and died ten months later whether from bodily deterioration or murder by Boniface, no one is certain.

Boniface VIII was an intriguing character and one that would be described in Dante’s “Divine Comedy” as being in the circle of hell. Those two men feuded during his reign. In 1302, Boniface VIII issued a decree that the only means of salvation for man was to be subject to the Roman pontiff. This set him up in opposition with the ruling leaders of the time.

Boniface VIII began feuding with Philip IV of France, insisting that God had set the pope over kings and kingdoms and then set forth a decree stating that all power was subject to the pope and that kings were subordinate to the church.

Philip sent a group to force him to resign. They ended up kidnapping him for three days, releasing him and then he died not long after. The rumors of his death range from poisoned figs to him chewing off his own arm and bashing his head against a wall to commit suicide, but most likely he died of kidney stones.

Following an eight-months reign by Benedict XI (who it was also rumored was poisoned), Clement V came into power. The most notable moments of his term in office were that he terminated the Knights Templar and then moved the papal offices to Avignon, France, a move that cemented his power with the French monarchy. He set aside all of Boniface VIII’s decrees regarding the power structure between the church and the monarchy.

Philip was also interested in getting rid of the Templars. He wanted their money and to build his reputation. Clement was encouraged to accuse them of heresy. Those in France were rounded up, many were executed.

Within a few short years, the church had gone from ‘ruling’ the world to being subject to the French crown. Ahhh, the vagaries of man.

February 25 - The Dumb Ox

February 25 – The Dumb Ox

Thomas was born to wealthy parents. He had everything given to him. Too much food, not enough exercise, an easy life. His classmates and siblings taunted him with all of the things that were wrong with him.

All Thomas wanted to do was live a quiet life serving God. He was a Dominican and wanted to just be a preacher. His family wanted him to be something different, so at one point his brothers kidnapped him and placed terrible temptations before him, prostitutes and prestige. He refused it all.

He finally escaped from his family and ran to the University of Paris. He was a slow methodical thinker and they called him “Dumb-Ox.”

He studied everything and along with other scholars became fascinated by Aristotle, works by Maimonides and other philosophers. He worked to bring together philosophy and theology, calling philosophy – reason and theology – revelation. He believed that they didn’t contradict each other, both came from God.

Thomas saw that reason was based on knowledge of our senses and while that can lead us to God, only revelation can show the God of the Bible for who He is and who mankind is in the scheme of God’s world. However, revelation and reason can work together to help man explain himself.

Thomas Aquinas was one of the great scholars of the Middle Ages. He wrote ‘Summa Theologica’ (Summation of Theology) over a period of seven years. Translated into English, it takes up 4000 pages. He wrote other pieces, but this was his greatest and he never finished it.

In 1273 he went to a communion service and was profoundly touched by God. He looked back on his amazing work and said, “All that I have written is only so much straw, compared to what I have seen and what has been revealed to me.” He refused to write any more and died three months later.

This brilliant man transformed the church’s approach to theology, yet it was a personal moment with God that changed his life in the end.

February 24 - Not so Innocent

February 24 – Not so Innocent

For eighteen years, Innocent III built a powerful papacy (1198-1216). In 1215, he called the Fourth Lateran Council. At this council, they set forth hundreds of decrees for the church in ust three days.

Innocent thought that every Christian should display a little bit of Christianity, so rules were set in place that every person had to make confession to a priest annually to be able to take communion. The doctrine of transubstantiation was officially part of the church. The elements of communion actually were the body and blood of Christ. This had been around for a long time, but now it was official. By doing this, the church took greater control of its people.

Communion was a critical part of salvation – if you were denied communion (such as those who were excommunicated), your soul was in jeopardy. Now that the priest actually linked communion to the blood and body of Christ, it became even more powerful. Excommunication now would deny the person access to Christ Himself!

Innocent declared that the pope was the “Vicar of Christ” rather than just the Vicar of Peter. The pope was Christ’s representative on earth – a mediator between God and man, below God but beyond man.

At this point, it was a bad idea to disagree with the church. If you did, you also put your soul in jeopardy and those who might listen to you. Anyone who didn’t remove a ‘heretic’ (one who disagreed with the church), faced excommunication and full cooperation would bring full forgiveness.

This council forced Jews to wear special identifying badges. Oh, you thought that Hitler made this up? No … the early church came up with this idea. Christians were forbidden to trade with them and the rules set in place led to the formation of Jewish ghettos.

The church absolutely refused to allow kings to appoint bishops. King John of England had appointed the archbishop of Canterbury and Innocent refused to accept him. When King John balked, Innocent excommunicated him. This then brought the King’s throne into play and Jon finally submitted.

A powerful and charismatic man created the church that would remain influential in Europe until the Reformation.

February 23 - Simplicity

February 23 – Simplicity

Francis Bernardone lived a life of great affluence. He was a knight of Assisi and one day while traveling, saw a leper beside the road. Though he usually just rode past, he looked down and saw the face of Christ in this man. He leapt from his horse and kissed the man, giving him money and offering him a ride to his next destination. His life was transformed.

He got himself into a bit of trouble when he sold some of his father’s merchandise to fix a chapel. Dad dragged him into the bishop’s office and while there, Francis gave up any claims to his father’s money and his father disowned him.

His words to his father were, “Until today, I have called you father. Now, I can say onestly, ‘Our Father in heaven.’ … In him alone I place my faith.” He took off his wealthy clothes, picked up a simple brown tunic that he had taken from a farmer’s scarecrow, tied a rope around it and prayed that he would never own anything of his own gain.

Francis began to preach and gained followers who desperately wanted to live simple lives without wealth. He set up the rules that would begin the Franciscan order and then took eleven companions to Rome to ask for approval for his order. Innocent III thought that the rules might be a bit too harsh, but gave them approval.

The reaction in France and Italy was great. People were reacting against the church’s power and wealth. The rich stood in stark contrast to the poor who were left to starve. While many joined the Franciscan order, they were supported by those who didn’t feel that they could sacrifice to such a great extent.

In 1214, a young nun named Clare wanted to live as the Franciscans. While they preached, she and her nuns cared for the sick. The next pope declared that she and her nuns could no longer listen to the Franciscans after Francis died, nor could they embrace poverty. She went on a hunger strike and while she lay dying, Pope Gregory IX backed down and allowed her rules for the community of “Poor Clares” to be approved.

February 22 - Where's Waldo?

February 22 – Where’s Waldo?

Before there were Protestants, there were Protestants. Before Martin Luther nailed his theses to the church door, there were plenty of people that didn’t approve of where the church was going. All it would take was a leader.

Peter Waldo was at a street fair one day when he heard a singer tell of a wealthy young man who left everything and returned as an emaciated beggar who was unrecognizable. At his death, he revealed himself, but had lived among the poor throughout his life and that life had brought him close to death.

This story impacted young Waldo and after ensuring that his wife would be cared for financially and placing his daughters in a convent, he gave the rest of his money and estate to the poor. He asked two priests to translate the Bible into French and began memorizing it. Then, he moved among the common people, teaching them about Jesus. This was new to them. Monks and nuns lived pious lives filled with self-denial, but their teaching didn’t hold much water when they failed to keep their vows. No one expected normal people to live like this. Waldo believed that Jesus called everyone to live a life based on His teachings.

He established the Poor Men of Lyons – the Waldensians – which brought the teachings of Jesus to the people. Well, what do you know?! The archbishop of Lyons didn’t like this and ordered them to stop. He excommunicated Waldo. The Waldensians continued to preach. The church hated that since they weren’t clergy, there was no control. Their lives of poverty (the walked barefut, owned nothing, wore simple garments) and simple teaching drew the hearts of people and the ire of a wealthy church.

They were accused of heresy, though their teachings were orthodox. The church could not allow them to exist outside its structure. They taught of the priesthood of all believers and those that were weary of the excesses of the church listened and believed. They taught the Bible in the language of the people and rejected relics, pilgrimages, saints’ days, purgatory and other ‘church’ ideas.

Pope Innocent III offered to allow them back into the church if they would submit to his authority and most refused. The Inquisition to come would try to destroy them, but they continued to spread throughout Europe and still exist today.

February 21 - Higher Education

February 21 – Higher Education

Until the mid 1100s, monasteries and cathedral schools were the only place that one could gain higher education. But, as it happened, teachers began to show up in these schools that weren’t members of the clergy and as they began questioning the official church dogma, ran into trouble.

One of these men was Peter Abelard and though he ended up in a monastery, couldn’t bring himself to acquiesce in debates of theology. He set up a private teaching studio in Paris and took on paying students. He taught for awhile at Notre Dame Cathedral, but as his private studio grew larger and his fame expanded, the church didn’t want to trust him. At one point, a group of teachers were kicked out of Notre Dame and set up a school in Paris.

During this time, trades were organized and the teachers could do no less, so they set up for themselves the Universitas Societas Magistrorum et Scholarium or Universal Society of Teachers and Students. They had a chancellor who had a loose connection to the Bishop of Paris, granted licenses to teach and in 1200, Philip II gave the university official status. In 1208, a law university in Bologna were given official status but soon went on strike because of the pressure from the church bishops for control. Pope Gregory IX finally promised the school self-government to end the strike.

At the University of Paris, education was separated by nationality, allowing teachers and students with similar backgrounds to work together. There were four of these: French, English/German, Norman, Picardian (low countries). This began the idea of colleges within a university. Paris also developed four fields of study: arts, medicine, law and theology.

Before they had received official status, though Henry I of England prohibited students from studying there and established a “Studium Generale” in Oxford. A chancellor was appointed and became a university in 1215.

The time was ripening for the Renaissance as scholarship exploded. Paris, Oxford and Bologna would become centers of theology, philosophy and science.

February 20 - Reforming Monasteries

February 20 – Reforming Monasteries

Even the most pious can find themselves led astray and the monasteries were no different. A group of Benedictine monks began a new community near Cistertium, France, hoping to return to a simple life of work and prayer. These men were so strict that they refused to dye their robes so that they wouldn’t even appear to desire wealth. The order continues to exist today, still wearing white robes.

But that strictness was not bringing in new converts until the day that Bernard of Clairvaux showed up with thirty of his friends. He became a great monk and a dog breed was later named for him. He established more than sixty-five Cistercian communities, made popes, and even preached crusades.

Bernard taught that each man needed a personal experience with Christ and that self-denial for love of God was great. He was responsible for a greater emphasis on Mary, but denied the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.

He got involved with a heated debate between two rivals for the papacy. His power and influence allowed him to make the decision that placed Innocent II in power.

Bernard taught that to love God is to be drawn into the love that flows eternally between Father, Son and Spirit. Until Bernard, the church portrayed Jesus as an angry judge. His teachings on the love of Jesus transformed Christianity. Since many of the icons portrayed these frightening images of Christ, Bernard taught about the humanity of Jesus which brought pictures of the infant Jesus and the crucified Christ.

February 19 - More Crusades

February 19 – More Crusades

For the next few centuries, crusades were commonplace. While there are eight or nine recognized ‘crusades’ by historians occurring until about 1270, the crusading spirit swept across Europe for centuries.

The Second Crusade was to retake Edessa in the Holy Land. An army of two hundred thousand left Europe led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Not much happened – the Turks kept wiping them out.

Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt finally retook Jerusalem, which freaked Gregory VIII (pope) out. Emperor Frederick of Barbarossa, Richard the Lionhearted of England and Philip II Augustus of France led the Crusade. It failed. Frederick drowned, Richard and Philip ended up doing nothing. Philip went back to Europe bent on stealing some of Richard’s lands while he was busy in the Holy Land and when Richard came back, he as captured by the emperor of Germany and held prisoner. Finally a ransom was paid and he was released. This is the period of time in which the legends of Robin Hood arose.

The Fourth Crusade was called by Pope Innocent III to destroy Saladin’s base in Egypt. They didn’t get enough people, they didn’t get enough money, so instead of going to Egypt, they went to Constantinople thinking they would take this instead. This is a hideous part of Christian history. In the name of Christ, the crusaders raped and killed Christians. They destroyed the city, stealing the church’s wealth. At one point, a whore danced on the altar in the Hagia Sophia (Church of Holy Wisdom). Finally, the Byzantines retook Constantinople, but the schism between East and West grew even wider.

The Fifth Crusade was a major attempt at regaining a foothold in Jerusalem. The power Ayabid Sultan Al Kamil, though, went after them with a vengeance and it was soon over. It was during this period of time that he put a bounty on Christians. Every head of a Christian that was brought to him was worth a golden Byzantine coin. St. Francis of Assisi crossed the battle lines to speak with him and was captured. His words to the Sultan were impressive enough to buy him safe passage and the establishment of the Franciscans in the Holy Land.

The final crusades were termed failures in the ultimate goals just as all of the previous crusades had been. The consequences of these crusades was great enmity between Christians and Muslims. At the same time, the power of the papcy increased greatly. Since the crusades brought so much attention to the Holy Land, back home in Europe stories from the Bible were told over and over again and people increasingly turned to personal holiness.

Monastic military orders were founded – obedience, poverty and chastity. These grew in power and continued to exist long after the crusades were finished.

The time of the crusades saw great changes in Europe. The development of cities and economic trade transformed the continent away from the feudal system. The wealth was no longer centered on a few nobles who controlled the land. The bourgeoisie (meaning “those who live in the city”) emerged as merchants grew in power.

February 18 - Crusades

February 18 – Crusades!

Never let it be said that compassion outweighed politics in the church. Oh wait … it is supposed to be that way. Well, once the two became married, it was difficult to separate them.

It all began in 638 AD when the Muslims took control of Jerusalem. During this day and age, Christians would go on a pilgramage to prove that they truly desired to repent of their sins. If you were to stop a Christian from doing this, it was believed that you put his salvation in jeopardy.

The Muslims allowed Christians to come to Jerusalem, but it wasn’t cheap. They charged tariffs.

In 1088 Emperor Alexis of Constantinople was worried that the Muslim Turks were gaining ground too quickly and he did not like the fact that they were in control of the land of Jesus. He called on Pope Urban II to help him deal with the problem.

Pope Urban was a crafty pope and saw this as a chance to wrest control of the church back so that it would be unified under his control. He preached a very impassioned sermon begging the people to join together and destroy the ‘vile race’ that had taken the lands of the church.

All of a sudden, something completely unexpected happened to the immense crowd that was gathered there. It was as if they had been waiting for this moment all their lives. As one they began to chant, “Deus vult! Deus vult!” which means God wills it! People from every walk of life sewed cloth crosses on their clothing. The pope’s sent his people throughout Europe, recruiting knights.

Some went because it would be a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, others saw the great financial gains from these attles, others were ready for a war against the infidels.

They met in Constantinople and the First Crusade had begun. But, it became quite clear as well that the East and West would never unite. The emperor worried that the crusaders would threaten his throne. The crusaders heard that he had made treaties with the Turks and felt he was a traitor because he wasn’t driving them from Constantinople.

But, the continued with their task. Emperor Alexis gave them provisions and the army moved south and east, capturing Antioch and Jerusalem. They believed that no captive should be left alive, so it is said that on the Temple Mount, Muslim blood flowed ankle-deep. Another observer said that soldiers ‘rode in blood up to their bridle reins.’ The Crusaders slaughtered men, women and children, torched a synagogue, burning the Jews inside alive … all in the name of Christ.

Jerusalem fell to the Crusaders on July 15, 1099. They soon turned to defense and built castles in Jerusalem to protect the city. Following this the Knights Templars and the Knights Hospitalers became powerful. They were originally only in existence to assist the crusaders, but soon they became their own military organizations.

February 17 - Anselm of Canterbury

February 17 – Anselm of Canterbury

Before we see the final nail in the coffin for the unity of the church, let’s take a short break and move north to England. Things have been happening there and we need to check in on them.

There was a young man born in Italy in 1033 who decided that he wanted nothing to do with politics, though his father desired that of him and set out to find himself by wandering through Europe. Unlike those students who set out to find themselves today, he joined a monastery in Normandy. The thing is – that’s what most bright young men of his day did when they were too restless to join their father’s business.

In 1066, William of Normandy conquered England. It wasn’t the worst thing that could have happened to England, he brought teachers and preachers with him. One of those men was a teacher from that same monastery in Normandy where our young hero landed. Anselm then became the abbot of the monastery.

Now, in 1093, William’s son (William II, by the way) brought Anselm to England and made him the Archbishop of Canterbury. Believe it or not, this created an issue. William II wanted to control the clergy. Anselm wanted to protect the church from greedy kings. He refused the appointment and pretty much ended up in exile in Italy. What did William do? Stole all of the monies that were to go to Canterbury. Next step – William died and his brother Henry took over. He asked Anselm to return. But Henry was no better, the battle between the two men grew and Anselm headed back to exile.

While Anselm was in exile, he took the time to write. His theory about Christ’s death on the cross reconciling man to God became known as the Satisfaction Theory of Atonement. God can’t overlook man’s sin and is offended by it. He wants to forgive man, but must maintain moral order in the universe. Only man could satisfy the offense, but man couldn’t do it adequately. So, God became man – that way the one who could satisfy is both God and man – Christ.

Anselm loved logic and philosophy, but his statement “I believe in order to understand” reminded his readers that those who looked for truth first needed to have faith. And it is from Anselm that we get an idea that continues to fascinate us: human reason demands the idea of a perfect Being, therefore that Being must exist.

February 16 - Schism!

February 16 – Schism!

We believe in one holy and catholic (universal) church.

Power corrupts. Absolute power corrupts absolutely. The church had gotten to a point where the powers that ruled would no longer see eye to eye and they weren’t about to come together in any conciliatory fashion. Each was wrong and that was all there was to it.

There were many differences in what the Roman Church and the Eastern Church taught. Pope Leo IX felt that priests shouldn’t be able to pass their position to their children, so he banned priests from marrying. He didn’t want outside influence on the church, so he pulled the Roman church free from outside control. He believed that God had given the pope authority over all Christians.

Michael was the patriarch of Constantinople. Leo wanted him to submit to Rome. Michael refused and then closed every Roman affiliated church in Constantinople. Leo sent envoys. Michael refused to meet with them. But, Leo’s chief envoy was a man named Humbert. Before he had left Rome, he had written a bull (a bull is a notice written in the pope’s name. Bull is Latin from where we get the word bulletin) denouncing the Eastern church. He marched into the Hagia Sophia (Church of the Holy Wisdom) during the Lord’s supper, slammed it down on the communion table, walked out, shook the dust from his feet and said, “Let God look and judge.”

Then he excommunicated Michael, who in turn excommunicated the envoys.

All of this happened after the churches had disagreed about the wording of the Nicene Creed. They continued to disagree about things such as marriage for priests.

After the creedal disagreement, the bull and excommunication were the second crack in the unity of the church. The two bishops – a pope and a patriarch – had created a schism. One more thing was needed to separate the East and West. One more event would cement the separation. We’ll read about that tomorrow.

In later years, attempts were made to reunite the two, but none have been successful. It’s about power. Who is in control. The East and West couldn’t agree and the church was forever split.

February 15 - Vladimir the Great

February 15 – Vladimir the Great

Russia was still a pagan country, though the princess of Kiev – Olga was a Christian. Christianity was present, but had yet to become a prevailing force in the country. Olga’s son (a name I can’t pronounce, much less spell) ruled from Kiev and when he died, one of his sons became ruler, another son ruled a group of Slavs and his illegitimate son, Vladimir was sent to rule in northwest Russia.

The two legitimate brothers began warring with each other and Vladimir escaped to Scandinavia where he built an army of Vikings which would assist him in taking Kiev. Vladimir expanded his territory, but did so as a pagan. He had 800 concubines and at least 5 wives, built shrines and temples to the gods and established the thunder-god Perun as the supreme deity. It was said that he even participated in human sacrifice to the gods.

In 983, to celebrate a victory, he decided that he needed to offer a human sacrifice to the gods. When the lot was cast, a young Christian boy named Ioann was chosen. His father rebelled and refused to give up his son. The crowds were furious! How could one man go against the gods. They feared terrible retribution and murdered both the boy and his father. Persecution against Christians continued in Russia for a period of time.

Vladimir was politically very astute and realized that this type of persecution and antipathy was not aiding his kingdom. A new religion was needed. He sent envoys out to learn about the various religions. Judaism and Islam were discarded because of their dietary restrictions. When he settled on Christianity, he had to decide between Roman and Eastern Christianity. The beauty of the Eastern liturgy drew his attention and the Byzantine emperor saw a chance to enhance the relationship by offering his sister to Vladimir as his bride.

Vladimir had to be baptized to marry Anna, which he did in 988, taking the Christian name – Basil. Because of Methodius and Cyril, the liturgy was already in the Slavonic language. Vladimir built beautiful churches and Eastern monks were welcomed into the country as they took the Gospel among the people. Pagan monuments were destroyed. He set aside his concubines and former wives, having only Anna in his life. He built schools and made peace with neighboring rulers. Vladimir was committed to his new religion as were his people.

February 14 - The Lover's Saint

February 14 – The Lover’s Saint

Saint Valentine is a bit of a mystery. There were several Valentine’s (Valentinus) in Roman church martyrology and not much is known about any of them.

As legend has it, Valentine was a temple priest (not a Christian church priest), who was jailed by Emperor Claudius (around 269 AD) because he not only helped Christians to escape persecution, but was caught while performing a marriage ceremony for two Christians. Valentine was a Christian and during his imprisonment, tried to convert Claudius. For this, he was stoned and beaten, and then because that didn’t kill him, he was beheaded.

This is but one story of a Valentine. There were at least seven others listed in various places, all of them have different burial dates, but one does have the date of February 14. The name ‘Valentinus’ comes from the Latin valens, which means worthy.

The tradition of Valentine’s Day comes from Chaucer’s poem “La Parlament de Foules” (Parliament of Fowls) written around 1381-1382. In it, for the first time in literature, Chaucer speaks of Valentine’s Day – February 14 – being a day for lovers.

During Chaucer’s time – courtly love was quite popular and in his circle of friends, this date became a day for festivities. As it expanded, the church picked up the popular holiday and there is legend that it was used to supplant the ancient Roman pagan holiday of Lupercalia, which was celebrated February 13 – 14 and was a celebration of fertility.

Whether the early Christians did Christianize that pagan holiday, the first time anything was ever done about Valentine’s Day was following Chaucer’s poem.

There is no proof that Valentinus married Christian couples or that the early Christians decided to supplant another pagan festival, but on this day we celebrate love.

February 13 - Return to Christ

February 13 – Return to Christ

It certainly didn’t take long for the church to go from being a persecuted group of faithful Christians to selfish, greedy people who used their church to gain power and wealth. As much as the early church saw the error of the ways of the Israelites, they became much like them as they ignored the true calling of Christ and became one more cog in the wicked ways of the world.

William, Duke of Aquitaine (France) saw this happening and offered to set up a monastery in Cluny. It would be independent. Many of the monasteries of this time were controlled by land owners. William set this one up and then gave the power back to the Abbott and to the church. He kept his hands off and by doing so, enabled the monastery to actually grow. They followed Benedict’s rule – poverty, chastity and obedience. They succeeded because of their commitment to Christ – not to themselves.

From Cluny, other monasteries grew up in Europe – in France, Italy and Germany. Monasteries already in existence sent people to learn how to fix the problems that were occurring. It became a leader among the monasteries and built a massive church – the largest in the West. At one point, it may have led as many as 2000 monasteries.

The monks coming from this order spread throughout the kingdoms reforming the church. The priesthood of the church transformed as these monks moved into position as bishops. No longer was the priesthood purchased and no longer were concubines and wives allowed to the priests.

Another of the outgrowths, though of Cluny, was Christian chivalry among the knights. Cluny declared that from Thursday night to Monday morning, there could be no battles. While stopping many interior struggles among the noblemen, it didn’t stop battling between Christians and non-Christians, or infidels.

Cluny stood as a bulwark of piety in Europe for several centuries, offering a return to true Christianity.

February 12 - One word

February 12 – One word

One word. One simple little word.

In the mid 800s a church in Spain added one word to the Nicene Creed. This addition created chaos! Why? Well, at the last meeting of both the Eastern and Roman Christians, the Creed had been approved and then at two later councils, a vow had been made that the creed would never be changed.

When this Spanish church changed the creed from saying “The Spirit proceeds from the Father” to “The Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son,” the Roman church decided they liked it and were glad to revise the Nicene Creed.

Chaos!

The problem was that while both the Eastern and the Roman church believed in the Trinity, they each had differing ways in which they looked at it. Now, this might get a little convoluted. I’ll do what I can to bring it forth sensibly.

The Romans believed that the divine being dwelled equally in the Father, Son and Spirit. One essence … three manifestations of that essence.

The Eastern church believed that the divine could only dwell in one person – the Father – who then shares it with the Son and Spirit. They retain divinity, though. Now, they would accept that the Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son, but not from the Father AND the Son, because that means that the Son shares the divine being with the Father.

Yikes? Yikes.

What does this look like scripturally? Here are several references:

John 14:26 “But the Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you.”

John 15:26 “When the Counselor comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spiirt of truth who goes out from the Father, he will testify about me, but you also must testify, for you have been with me from the beginning.”

John 16:7 “Unless I go away, the Counselor will not come to you; but if I go, I will send him to you.”

Galatians 4:6 “Because you are sons, God sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, the Spirit who calls out, ‘Abba, Father.’”

Both the Roman and Eastern church views are viable with these scriptures. It doesn’t really help, does it?

In 867, the bishop of Constantinople made a lot of noise and denounced the added phrase. That was fine. In 962, the Roman pope said that he would drop it if the Eastern church would accept the pope’s supremacy. No, that wasn’t going to happen … but what did happen was that this was the beginning of the separation of the two churches.

February 11 - To the Slavs

Febuary 11 – To the Slavs

The church was becoming more and more separate as the years passed, with power struggles occurring regularly between Constantinople (East) and Rome (West). Political struggles for Europe and northern Africa were a part of the religious power struggles as well.

The Frankish ruler, Louis supported a man named Rostislav in his desire to rule over the the area of Moravia (the area we know as Czechoslovakia). It didn’t take long, though for Rostislav to want everyone off his back and to be able to control his own lands. He looked to Constantinople for help. The emperor did so and the Patriarch sent missionaries to him. Rostislav was also hoping to evangelize the people in Moravia.

Two brothers from Thessalonika in Greece, Cyril and Methodius answered the call. They learned the native language and began translating the Bible and the liturgy into Slavonic. Now, church leaders weren’t any too happy with the idea of them doing the Mass in any language other than Latin, so another political/religious power struggle began.

The Roman church wasn’t terribly thrilled with the fact that the Eastern church had made inroads into Moravia, so Cyril and Methodius made the trip to Rome to plead their case. They were definitely not stupid boys. They took with them the relics of St. Clement to present to Rome. It definitely made an impact and over the course of their stay there, some disciples that had traveled with them were ordained and the Pope (Adrian II) authorized the Slavic liturgy. The two brothers became Roman monks and then Cyril died the next year.

Methodius returned to Moravia, but then ran into the German clergy who arrested him for some reason and flung him in jail for a few years. The next pope (John VIII), got busy on his behalf and also gave the Slavic church independence. He died in 885 and the Latin liturgy came back to replace the Slavic, at which point the church declined. However, the faith that had been established in this region would remain fiercely independent and will crop up in later years to spawn incredible men who would bring Christianity to a new level.

While Cyril and Methodius were working in Moravia, they did amazing things for the people there. They developed an alphabet, which would become the foundation for others – we know it as the Cyrillic alphabet from which the Russian alphabet was developed. They also developed the first Slavonic Civil Code for Moravia.

February 10 - The Hammer's grandson

February 10 – The Hammer’s grandson

Christianity has poured out of Rome all over the near world, changing and transforming nations. In 496, Clovis led his people to Christianity and this made the continent more docile as the Franks moved throughout Europe. In 754 King Pepin III gave central Italy to the Roman church. His son, Charles tried a new form of evangelism on for size and liked it!

Every time he conquered a tribe, he forced them to be baptized or die. Huh, about 90% decided to become Christians! (don’t you love our history?) The story is told that a group refused baptism, he cut off their heads – about 4500 people and then went back to his camp to celebrate Christmas.

Pretty soon, he controlled all of what we know now as Germany and France.

In 799 AD, Pope Leo III got beaten up by some Italian nobles who wanted to control the church. He was rescued and though injured, taken to Charles’ palace. Those nobles had sent a letter ahead to Charles accusing Leo III with misappropriation of church funds, but finally on December 23, 800, King Charles declared his innocence.

Merry Christmas to Charles. Two days after the declaration of innocence, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as emperor, calling him “Charles Augustus, crowned by God as supreme and peaceful Emperor.”

The church just created an emperor. We know him as Charlemagne – Charles the Great.

He founded monasteries to preserve ancient texts and increase literacy. He appointed bishops for the church and ensured that the Roman church would control central Italy. After he died, the empire became known as “The Holy Roman Empire.”

The pope hadn’t received his power. Charlemagne believed that he alone had authority and that he answered to no one but God. When he died, his three sons divided the empire. The pope did gain more power. For hundreds of years to come, the power balance between kings and popes would go back and forth.

February 9 - The Hammer

February 9 – The Hammer

One of those tribes that blasted the Roman Empire apart was the Franks. Their ruler, Charles Martel or The Hammer (Martel means “The Hammer”) decided that the church was there for his work. He allowed Roman missionaries to move throughout Germany as long as he had control of what they were doing.

While he was ruler, the Muslims decided to begin their press into Europe and crossed into his territory. He met them in between Tours and Poitiers and beat them. Finally he pushed them back into Spain and they stopped the move into Europe.

Several years previously, the defense of Constantinople also stopped the press of the Muslims into Europe from the east, but this battle – the Battle of Tours was very important in the history of Western Civilization.

Times had changed radically. From a time when Christians were persecuted for their beliefs there now came a period when people believed that there should be a Christian empire. The question soon became whether a pope would be the leader or a king. The pope had become powerful, but wasn’t powerful enough.

In 754 AD, a document was illegally created … forged … saying that Constantine had moved to Constantinople in order to allow the pope to have control of the West. That he had given that portion of the empire to Rome. This document, called the Donation of Constantine was a powerful item in the hands of the church.

Charles Martel’s son, King Pepin III took lands and using that document gave them to the Pope. However, there wasn’t enough power yet to bring the pope to Imperial power. They were about to get much closer, though.

February 8 - Iconoclasts

February 8 – Iconoclasts

Sometimes I get weary of Christian stores selling “Jesus Junk.” But, goodness, they do have a long history to draw from. Part of Muhammad’s idol-worship attacks were aimed at Christians because they used icons. Pictures of Jesus were common as were pictures of saints. Part of the problem with this was that people were transferring their idol worship from the time when they were pagan to their new religion – Christianity.

Well, in 725 AD, a volcano messed with Constantinople. The new emperor believed that God was punishing them for ‘idol worship’ and ordered grand destruction. He set up a battle between “Icon-Kissers” (or iconodules) and Icon-destroyers (or iconoclasts). Now, this battle lasted for 61 years! There was one point when a golden image of Christ over the palace doors was set to be destroyed. A mob of women carrying pots and pans, kicked the scaffold out from under the soldiers that had been sent to destroy it. Many times this battle got bloody.

Now, one of the images we recognize is that of people kissing icons of saints. These people are doing nothing more than acting on their belief that past saints still surround them in worship. (Hebrews 12:1 promotes this.) As they kiss the icon, they welcome the saints to worship.

By 787, the battle needed to end. A church council was called in Nicea. Icon worship was banned. No longer could they create three-dimensional images of Jesus and the saints. However, they continued to allow icon-reverence.

Icon reverence is still something we fully accept. We revere our Bible, while not worshiping the individual item. It is simply an earthly tool for us to come into contact with God.

Because this was such a terrible temptation and then sin for Muslims, they do not allow any artistic depictions of Mohammad or Allah. They have beautiful calligraphed imagery of words from the Koran, but this sin is one they take very seriously.

Iconoclast (btw) means someone who destroys religious images – and has expanded to be someone who destroys beliefs, ideals, customs and institutions.

February 7 - Submission

February 7 – Submission

In 610 AD a man’s life was changed by conversations he had with the angel Gabriel. These conversations made up the Koran and Muhammad’s teachings started a new religion.

He preached a message of the one true God, asserting that idols and religions based on many gods were false. It didn’t take long for those that were making money off sales of idols to become furious with him and decide that he needed to die. He fled with many of his followers, but after building a large following returned to Mecca. The followers were called Muslims which simply means ‘those who submit to Allah.’ The name Islam means ‘submission.’

After he died, Islam continued and his followers grew in great number. They conquered Arabia, Syria and North Africa and in 638 AD they took over Jerusalem and by 711 AD they had conquered Portugal and Spain.

These people knew what they were doing. They allowed religious freedoms, but with restrictions. Christians were allowed to continue worshiping Christ, but had to wear distinct clothing and heavy crosses. They also were required to pay higher taxes. Because they believed that the Old Testament was holy, they were protected.

North African Christians had been rejected by the Eastern church because of their one-nature
theology. Many of these willingly transformed their churches into mosques.

Islam would grow into a powerful religion because they were so open. Scholarship, art, music, education thrived under early Islamic leading while the rest of Europe began to face the dark ages. We’ll see how this happened a little later.

February 6 - Shall the twain meet?

February 6 – Shall the twain meet?

Believe it or not, it is difficult for two different forms of Christianity to exist under the same roof. In the last week, we saw that Columba came down from Scotland and brought with him the monastic system. Then, Gregory sent Alexander to England taking the Roman hierarchal system. Things were bound to clash eventually.

The Celtic Christians and the Roman Christians believed the same things, but practiced in vastly different ways. They had differing dates for Easter, monks shaved their heads differently (really? Yup), Celtic monasteries were independent of any outside rule and there were some abuses that crept up from this. Sometimes they were developed simply to avoid serving a secular landlord and consequently there was no spiritual activity occurring.

Things went back and forth for awhile until in 664 AD, the new king of Northumbria named Oswy and his wife got into it. He was Celtic and she was Roman. While he was celebrating Easter, she was fasting for Lent.

Fortunately for them, a woman named Hilda had founded a community in Whitby. She ruled a monastery for both men and women and trained many monks, some of whom later became overseers. She was a powerful woman. The king called an assembly at Whitby and there were arguments from learned men of both sides.

They argued about Easter. Columba was quoted and all seemed well, until the Romans quoted from St. Peter. Finally the king announced that since Peter was the keeper of heaven’s keys, it might be a good idea to follow his lead. The Roman date for Easter was set. The beauty of this assembly was that Roman organization began to be implemented into the Celtic way of life and created a strong church in England.

Not long after this, a plague hit England, the Archbishop of Canterbury died and the church had no leadership. Theodore of Tarsus showed up to take over and appointed bishops and priests from both Celtic and Roman churches bringing the English church into a strong period. While much of the art was destroyed by Vikings later, you can still see Roman and Celtic style stone crosses throughout the countryside.

February 5 - Plain Songs

February 5 – Plain Songs

Meanwhile, back in Rome, while no longer the capital of an empire was still connected to Peter and Paul. The bishops of Rome worked long and hard to gain power throughout the church and one day, the bishop of Rome was all of a sudden (ok, not so all of a sudden … it happened) the pope.

Now, the pope wasn’t quite the big deal he is today until a man who considered himself just a monk got into the mix and even though he wanted nothing to do with it, was selected as the new pope.

Gregory was born in 540 and at the age of 50 a unanimous decision brought him to power. He had been a prefect of Rome, his family had been involved in politics and he was the right man for the job at the right time. When the city was threatened, he appealed to the emperor in Constantinople for help – which was refused. So, he went ahead, gathered troops, negotiated with the invaders and brought peace. He wasn’t trying to be political, he just wanted peace in his city.

Gregory cared about the people and believed that the clergy should be shepherds … pastors. He wrote about theology and how the pastors should take care of their flock. He was responsible for sending Benedict’s monks to England as evangelists.

This evangelistic mission to England transformed more than ten thousand lives and Augustine of Canterbury became the first Archbishop. The pope’s rule now extended up to England.

He was responsible for many of the beliefs that remain in Catholicism. Based on Augustine’s curiosity about a place where God cleansed the unconfessed sins of Christians at death, he developed the doctrine of purgatory (purging). He taught that God’s forgiveness might require acts of penance.

Gregory wrote about the saints, telling stories of the fantastic and the miraculous. It was during his time as pope, that people began to venerate the saints and no church for centuries after him was built without the relic of a saint placed in it.

He loved church music and the plainsong chant – the Gregorian chant began because of his influence.

The bishop of Constantinople claimed that he was the Ecumenical Patriarch. Gregory refused to accept that type of title, but he believed that he was the head pastor of the church around the world. He had done so much in his tenure as pope, that he became known as Gregory the Great, though he remained a very humble monk.

February 4 - Dove of the Church

February 4 – Dove of the Church

In 521 AD, a babe was born in Ireland. His parents named him Columba (which means Dove), he was also known as Colum Kille (St. Columbkille), which means dove of the church. His family was a Christian family living in northern Ireland. He went to schools provided by the monasteries and was an excellent student.

He ended up studying with Finian, who was famous for the CLonard Abbey where some of the most important people in Irish Christianity studied, and was one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland, who were quite famous during the sixth century.

Columba set sail in 563 for Iona, a western island of Scotland. Upon arriving there, they built homes and a church, setting up a base of operations for missionary work among the Picts – the neighboring Scottish tribe.

There are many legends of Columba, such as the story of the chief of Inverness bolting his gates against the missionaries. Columba made the sign of the cross, the gates flew open and the chief listened to their message.

The Druids were active during this time and gave them a bit of trouble, but it didn’t take long for the missionaries to bring Jesus to all of Scotland and northern England. Vikings continually attacked the island, but it maintained its strength.

A large monastery grew on the island of Iona and Columba was the abbot there. After he died, the abbots of Iona were the highest power in the Scottish church. Many missionaries left Iona, spreading the news of Jesus throughout Europe. They always returned to Iona and it became known for its education, holiness and evangelism.

The Abbey was torn down during the Reformation, but in 1900 the land was given back to the Church of Scotland and in 1938 a community was formed. They have restored the abbey and nunnery. Forty-six Scottish kings are buried there along with Columba, the first abbott.

You can check all of this out on their website at www.isle_of_iona.com/abbey.htm

February 3 - The Rule

February 3 – The Rule

And you think we have nominal Christians now? Oh, there’s nothing new under the sun.

Christianity was one of those popular things to do. There were a bunch of people who said they were Christians simply because that was the religion of the day. Consequently, those who really felt the call of Christ on their lives had to separate themselves from the world.

There were hermits and communities that had developed – ascetics living in self-denial. All of these various groups had developed throughout the entirety of the Roman Empire.

Benedict was born in Italy, traveled to Rome to study but was soon disgusted with the immorality of this ‘Christian’ city. He left to become a hermit. People trusted him and brought their sons to him to learn about being a Christian. So much of this was happening, he had to become an abbott of a monastery. But, Benedict was a bit severe. One monk even tried to poison him because he was so strict.

He left. But, he also learned. He learned that while disciple was good, you sometimes had to allow for the frailty of humanity. Around 529, Benedict moved to a remote area, destroyed a pagan temple and built a monastery.

This might not have been a big deal, but he had big dreams for this monastery and the life that would be lived there. He wrote “The Rule” for governance. He wanted his monastery to be self-supporting and self-contained. They had workshops and fields. He wanted a safe place for his monks away from the immorality of the world. Everything they needed, they would provide for themselves.

He also understood that monks might not know exactly what they wanted right off. He gave them a one-year trial. If he wanted to be a monk after a year, he would take the vows which would separate him from society: poverty, chastity, obedience.

The Rule had seven services each day – worship was important. There was also private devotions and prayers for those outside the monastery. Every monk was required to be involved in some type of manual labor.

He wanted to make monastic life available to the ordinary man, encouraging people to not be fearful of the severity of the life he offered. This monastery became a haven in the midst of a chaotic world and Benedict’s RULE continues to guide monasteries.

One other piece of trivia: Benedict’s twin sister Scholastica founded a convent near his monastery.

February 2 - One Last Council

February 2 – One Last Council

Now, one more man – Leo, the patriarch of Rome, actually didn’t make it to the council. He sent a summary of his teaching (Pope Leo’s Tome). The messenger who brought this? Well, he was killed by people from Cyril’s group.

In 451 – a new emperor convened a council in Chalcedon. 500 Bishops met. The combined the Nicene Creed, Cyril’s writings and Leo’s Tome. The Calcedonian Definition is a statement of faith that came from this.

Christ is “acknowledged in two natures, without confusion, without change, without divison, without separation … the characteristic property of each nature being preserved, and coming together to form one person.”

This was the last council that the churches in which the East and the West would join together officially. This was the last time that all regions came together and agreed on most issues.

The Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Churches today are those that divided from the Roman church because of their continued belief in the “One Nature” of Jesus.

Pope Leo had plenty to deal with after this council. In 452, everyone hit the panic button when Attila the Hun came for Rome. Leo was the only one who had the courage to deal with the invasion. He met Attila on the road to Rome and persuaded him to retreat. However, in 455, even he couldn’t convince the “Vandals” to leave. But, he stopped them from raping and killing. In 476, a barbarian took out the last Western emperor. Only the Eastern Empire still stood.

February 1 - Just make a decision!

February 1 – Just make a decision!

The Council of Nicea’s declaration that Jesus was fully God was great, but now what to do about whether or not Jesus was fully human? Oh yah – that was still being argued over (and over and over).

The church in the early 400s was in a battle. The churches of Alexandria and Rome tended to work together against the churches of Antioch and Constantinople. Politics + Religion? Oh, this isn’t going to be good, no matter what happens.

In Alexandria, the general teaching was that Jesus was divine – they emphasized the LOGOS – the divine Word much more than Jesus’ humanity. A man named Apollinarius, in his haste to fight against Arianism pushed things a bit too far by stating that the LOGOS replaced Jesus’ human soul – Christ was only human in bodily form. Whoops.

In Antioch, the focus was primarily on Jesus’ humanity. Though he was divine, His humanity was complete.

Nestorius – patriarch (yah – they have patriarchs now – they’re the archbishops) of Constantinople got upset because of teaching from Apollinarius was still out there that said Mary was the ‘bearer of God’. He wanted people to understand that Jesus was God … and human. Well, so that blew up in his face.

The patriarch of Alexandria – Cyril, accused him of saying that Jesus was two separate natures in one body. Cyril was kind of corrupt – he’d even approved the murder of a woman in 415 AD.

So, with the threat of a church split on them, a council was called in 431. Cyril got there first, condemning Nestorius and his followers and adjourned the council! Nestorius’ friends showed up, convened the council and condemned Cyril and adjourned. Finally representatives from Rome showed up, convened the council a third time, sided with Cyril and exiled Nestorius. Oh the craziness!

Jesus with one nature was the ruling of the council. This didn’t set well with people. There was still a lot of argument.